Did you know that the nation’s first successful school desegregation case centered on a Mexican-American fifth-grader? Or that a 9-year-old Latina helped pave the way for the end of school segregation in the United States?
Latinos have long been at the forefront of the battle to improve education outcomes for all Americans. But unlike many of the struggles of the African-American civil rights movement, these efforts are largely unknown to most people today. In fact, as far back as the 1930s, Latinos have been organizing and mounting legal challenges to what they considered unjust education policies.
In cases dealing with everything from the “separate but equal” doctrine to bilingual education to college access, the Latino community has a rich legacy of parents fighting for better schools, better communities, and better futures for their children.
Here’s a look at six key cases where Latinos helped shape education policy.
Roberto Alvarez v. Lemon Grove School District (California, 1931)
Lemon Grove was a small district outside San Diego, where Mexican-American and white students attended school together. One day, the principal blocked the door and turned away the Mexican-American kids. He told them that henceforth they would be studying in a rundown building the kids called la caballeriza (“the stable”).
Although the district maintained that this was necessary because the Mexican-American students couldn’t speak English and had assimilation issues, it was really more of a reflection of the anti-immigrant sentiments of the Depression era. In fact, many of the Mexican-American children had been born and raised in California.
So the Lemon Grove parents banded together and sued the district. Their plaintiff was Roberto Alvarez, age 12, chosen because of his fair appearance, excellent grades, and perfect English.
A California Superior Court judge ruled that segregating the Mexican-American students infringed on the laws of the state, and soon all the kids were back attending school together.
While it attracted little notice at the time, the Lemon Grove parents had won the first successful school desegregation case in American history.
Roberto Alvarez Jr., now professor emeritus at the University of California San Diego, only learned about the case when he was doing research as a graduate student at Stanford. “My dad, and his parents, were really humble about it,” he told NBC News. “People in the family called it, ‘that court thing;’ to them it was something that came and went. Later, we called it the ‘Lemon Grove Incident.’”
“My dad was very old-school; I don’t think he realized the broader significance and impact of what he had done,” Alvarez said.
One thing is certain: The senior Alvarez made the most of his education. When he passed away at age 84 in 2003, the Los Angeles Times described him as a successful businessman “who made millions.”
Mendez v. Westminster School District (California, 1946)
Sylvia Mendez was nine years old when her parents took her to register for school in Orange County, California. Instead they were turned away, and told to go to the “Mexican school,” even though her family spoke more English than Spanish.
Mendez’ father recruited other families for a class action lawsuit and they sued the district over the policy of “separate but equal” schools for Mexican-Americans and white students. Mendez’ lawyer argued that segregating Mexican-American students led to feelings of inferiority among them, and a federal judge agreed. The ruling was upheld on appeal, and later California’s Governor Earl Warren decided to end segregation in all of the state’s public schools.
“We have to reframe history so people see how committed Latinos parents are to their youth. We are not powerless.”- policy expert Deborah Santiago
Mendez returned to school – but she had changed history. One of the lawyers who submitted a brief in support of her case was Thurgood Marshall, who used the legal framework from Mendez to argue Brown v. Board of Education at the Supreme Court in 1954.
By then, the Chief Justice was Earl Warren, who sided with Marshall and wrote the majority opinion ending segregation in public schools. So the Mendez case can be seen as a roadmap for Brown; it laid the legal groundwork for one of the significant court decisions in American history.
Sylvia Mendez, now retired from a 33-year career in nursing, recalled how the case impacted her personally. “When I went back to school, I felt pressure to do well, because my parents had fought for me to be there,” she told NBC News. “They taught me that, no matter what, you have to persevere.”
Mendez received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011. “I cried when President Obama put it around my neck, thinking of my parents,” she said. “I felt like they were finally getting the recognition they deserved. I am just like the messenger, telling the story; they really did all the work.”
Aspira v. Board of Education of the City of New York (New York, 1972)
Aspira, a community organization, sued New York City’s Board of Education over the right of students with limited English proficiency to receive bilingual education. Aspira charged that the New York City schools were denying educational opportunities to Puerto Rican students with little or no English-language ability.
Backed by the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, Aspira won a settlement from the city guaranteeing bilingual education for all New York City public school students. This case was important because it was settled in the largest school district in the country, and it led to bilingual education being introduced in other districts as well.
“The Aspira case has since benefited Asian-Americans, African-Americans, refugees, people of all backgrounds. And the bigger picture is that it was Latinos, in this case Puerto Ricans, who took leadership in moving the issue forward,” said Deborah Santiago, Chief Operating Officer for Excelencia in Education. “We have to reframe history so people see how committed Latinos parents are to their youth. We are not powerless.”
Santiago believes that the perception that Latinos do not value education must be challenged. “We can see from history that this is not true,” she noted. “In case after case, Latinos are fighting for rights that benefit everyone, so that everyone can get the equity and support that Latino parents felt their children deserved.”
“We are not just fighting for our own rights,” Santiago said. “Latinos are advocating in ways that put their own name and experience on the line so that other families can benefit.”
Serna v. Portales Municipal School District (New Mexico, 1974)
When Judy Serna was ready for first grade, her mother took her to enroll in school. The school refused to admit her, however, because they said she couldn’t speak English. Serna’s mother and other parents joined a lawsuit against the school district.
In court, they pointed out that minority children made up over half of the students in New Mexico’s public schools, and charged that the district’s failure to provide them with a bilingual education was a violation of the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Both a federal court and a circuit court found in favor of Serna, and the district was ordered to come up with programs that could meet the needs of all students.
RELATED: Public Schools Becoming More Racially Segregated: Report
The Serna case helped make education equal for Latinos and Spanish-surnamed students across New Mexico, and strengthened the right of English-language learners to an education tailored to their needs.
Looking back, Judy Serna recalled her memories of the case for NBC News. “It wasn’t even true that I didn’t speak English. As a kid, I was comfortable in Spanish because I spent a lot of time with my grandparents, but mostly I was just shy,” she remembered. “What is amazing to me is that my mother, a single mom, would take on the school district and actually win.”
RELATED: Color Barrier: Segregation Images Resonate 60 Years On
Serna missed out on a year of school while the case was being resolved, but she says it was worth it. “I am proud of what my mom achieved,” she said. “She made things better for other students, and it also led to the hiring of bilingual teachers. So because of her, more Latino teachers were hired.”
And ironically, Serna knows more than ever about the value of being fully bilingual. “All my life,” she reflected, “speaking Spanish has helped me get jobs.”
Plyler v. Doe (Texas, 1982)
In the 1970s, Texas passed a law that stripped funding from school districts that educated undocumented children, and authorized school districts to charge tuition to the parents of those children. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) filed suit on behalf of a group of these children to have the law invalidated.
The case went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which in 1982 struck down the Texas law. “If the state is to deny a discrete group of innocent children the free public education that it offers to other children residing within its borders, that denial must be justified by a showing that it furthers some substantial state interest,” wrote Justice William Brennan in the majority opinion. “No such showing was made here.”
The idea of public education for all children may seem like a non-issue now, yet it was far from settled before Plyler. When the case was initially heard in Texas, the undocumented children involved took all of their belongings with them in suitcases to the courthouse – because they had been told that they would be deported immediately if their side lost.
Since then, Plyler’s doctrine has been used to strike down or weaken other discriminatory measures, like California’s Proposition 187.
Thomas A. Saenz, president and general counsel of MALDEF, said he is not surprised that cases like Plyler are not better known.
“The narrative of civil rights in this country has been largely framed through a Black/white/Southern U.S. paradigm,” said Saenz. “Not as much attention has been paid to the discrimination against Latinos in the Southwest and West.”
Part of the challenge for Latino civil rights advocates, he said, is adapting laws that were developed in a Black/White construct to protect Latino communities. Civil rights laws were typically written to end racial discrimination, while Latinos can face discrimination based on language ability, accents, or immigration status.
Cases like Plyler, Saenz said, stem from efforts by politicians to exploit fear among certain Americans of the growth of the Hispanic population. School policy is a natural place to attempt to exploit such a fear, he noted, because that is where the demographic trends are most visible.
“But if you read Plyler, it still holds up,” he said. “The justices split 5-4, but all nine justices believed it was bad policy to exclude undocumented children from our public schools.”
LULAC v. Richards (Texas, 1987)
At the time of this lawsuit, 20 percent of Texas residents lived in the state’s border areas, but only 10 percent of state funding for public universities went there. “People complained that they couldn’t go to a good school near where they lived,” said Albert Kauffman of St. Mary’s University School of Law, one of the attorneys for MALDEF in the case. “People were saying, why are our universities second-rate?”
The suit alleged that Texas did not provide equal higher education opportunities in predominantly Hispanic border cities like El Paso and Laredo, compared to cities in the state’s interior. At the trial, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) showed that, on average, students in the border areas travelled 225 miles to attend a comprehensive university – one with doctoral programs and professional schools – while those in the rest of Texas traveled 45 miles.
“It was the result of both neglect and discrimination, and because folks in the border areas did not have political clout,” Kauffman said. “People in the capital said that these students were ‘not ready,’ or they only needed access to a Bachelors Degree and that was enough.”
RELATED: 2016 Latino State of the Union: What Affects Latinos Today
The trial court ruled in favor of LULAC, and the South Texas/Border Initiative was created to improve funding in the region. By the time this decision was overturned in 1993, the Initiative had already become a catalyst for more state money, new degree programs, and new campuses in the border areas. The El Paso Times has noted that the lawsuit changed the trajectory of the University of Texas El Paso, whose student body is 80 percent Hispanic.
“It took a lawsuit to break up the old system and give people in that region a chance,” Kauffman said. “It also took political leaders coming together and putting aside differences, and coming up with a plan. If it hadn’t been for that, there would not be the opportunities we have now. Because of that, there is a much better higher education system throughout the border area.”
FAQs
Why is education important to the Hispanic community? ›
Among the key findings: Hispanics say a college education is important for getting ahead in life: Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) Hispanics agree that a college degree is important for getting ahead in life, greater than the share (74%) of the general public that says the same (Pew Social & Demographic Trends, 2009).
What are some important accomplishments done by Hispanics? ›- Early Spanish Explorers Reach America.
- Los Angeles Founded, First Hispanic Congressman Elected.
- Battle of the Alamo, Mexican-American War.
- Mexico Revolution Drives Immigration to US.
- Puerto Ricans Granted US Citizenship.
- First Hispanic Senator Sworn in.
- Contributions During World War II.
With earnings of more than $1 trillion each year and tax contributions of more than $252 billion, Hispanics not only add significant value to the U.S. economy but they also support and help fund social services and infrastructure that ultimately benefit all Americans.
What barriers do Hispanics face? ›...
Report: 6 Obstacles Latinos Face
- Employment. ...
- Housing. ...
- Education. ...
- Health. ...
- Criminal Justice. ...
- Voting Rights.
The likelihood that Hispanics and whites will attend a four-year college increases by about 30 percentage points when academic preparation is taken into account. Hispanics from Spanish-speaking families are nearly as likely as blacks to attend four-year colleges when they have high levels of academic preparation.
What barriers did Latinos face in education? ›Issues of poverty, lack of academic support resources, the amount of time in the U.S., and racial discrimination play large roles in preventing Hispanic children from developing their academic skills successfully.
How has Latino culture influenced America? ›Latinos continue to contribute to American culture as musicians, small business owners, chefs, veterans and many other professions. The sounds of Latin music have permeated U.S. airwaves and influenced American artists.
Who was the most influential Latino activist? ›Dolores Huerta
We cannot mention Cesar Chavez, without also naming Dolores Huerta as one of the most influential Hispanic Americans. Born in New Mexico in 1930, Dolores would go on to become a leading civil rights activist.
Hispanic and Latino are often used interchangeably though they actually mean two different things. Hispanic refers to people who speak Spanish or are descended from Spanish-speaking populations, while Latino refers to people who are from or descended from people from Latin America.
How do Latinos help the economy? ›Of this, foreign-born Hispanics contributed $96.9 billion in tax revenues nationwide. That included almost $36 billion in state and local taxes and more than $61 billion in taxes to the federal government. In some states, Hispanics account for a large percentage of spending power and tax revenues overall.
What are some Hispanic cultural values? ›
Hispanic families instill in their children the importance of honor, good manners, and respect for authority and the elderly. Preserving the Spanish language within the family is a common practice in most Hispanic homes. Spanish speakers tend toward formality in their treatment of one another.
How do Latinos impact the U.S. economy? ›In 2019, Hispanic households earned more than $1.2 trillion. This allowed them to pay $308.5 billion in taxes, including $196.5 billion in federal income taxes, as well as more than $112 billion in state and local taxes. After taxes, Hispanic households still held more than $910 billion in spending power.
How can I help Hispanic students succeed? ›Set high expectations for language-minority students. Educators can, for example, enable students to exit ESL programs quickly, offer bilingual advanced and honors courses, ask colleges to send Hispanic recruiters, and invite Hispanic graduates to return to school to encourage their peers.
Why do less Hispanics go to college? ›Compared to their white peers, Hispanic students are less likely to attend preschool, and more likely to attend low-performing public primary and secondary schools with inexperienced teachers and high leadership turnover. A weak academic foundation limits many Hispanics' options for college.
Why do Hispanics not go to therapy? ›In general, the Hispanic/Latino(a) community does not talk about mental health issues and many do not seek treatment because they don't recognize the signs and symptoms of mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety nor do they know where to find help.
Do Latino families value education? ›Research has demonstrated that Latino families value education and work in diverse forms to contribute to their children's success.
How many Latino students are first generation college students? ›Latinos are more likely to be first-generation college students than any other racial or ethnic group: More than 4 in 10 (44 percent) Hispanic students are the first in their family to attend college, according to educational nonprofit organization Excelencia in Education.
How do Latino students engage? ›- Understand your specific student population. ...
- Improve diversity and equity among your faculty. ...
- Listen to your students. ...
- Focus on wraparound services. ...
- Look beyond college completion.
Mexican-American students went on to have a college graduation rate of ~0.1%, often due to lack of access to college-readiness courses and lack of support from teachers and administrators who encouraged the students to not even try for college. Put simply, the students were being held down.
Why are Hispanic and African American dropout rates so high? ›We show that poverty is a key contributor. Lack of English proficiency among Hispanic student is linked to the higher Hispanic dropout probability. Our results also suggest that neighborhood characteristics may be important in explaining the high African- American dropout rates.
What are some areas of American culture has grown due to Hispanic influences? ›
...
Here are 13 of the greatest Hispanic contributions to US culture.
- Cuisine. ...
- Music. ...
- Sports. ...
- TV. ...
- Politics. ...
- Social Media. ...
- Fashion and Beauty Standards. ...
- Theater.
Nearly every region of the world has influenced American culture, most notably the English who colonized the country beginning in the early 1600s, according to the Library of Congress (opens in new tab). U.S. culture has also been shaped by the cultures of Indigenous Americans, Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.
What does it mean to be Latino in America today? ›Latin America. Hispanic Americans, also called Latinos, feminine Latinas, and Latinxs, people living in the United States who are descendants of Spanish-speaking peoples. Since most Hispanics trace their ancestry to Latin America, they are also often called Latinos.
Who is the most famous Latina in the world? ›- Ellen Ochoa. On April 8, 1993, Ellen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman in the world to go into space. ...
- Joan Baez. ...
- Dolores Huerta. ...
- Selena. ...
- Sylvia Rivera. ...
- Ana Mendieta. ...
- Ileana Ros-Lehtinen. ...
- Julia de Burgos.
It is important to note that Latino/a is an ethnic category, and one that encompasses various racial groups. Latinas are women of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central American, North South American, Spanish origin and Brazil.
What is my race if I am Mexican? ›Hispanic or Latino
Chicano – Includes people born in the United States with Mexican ancestry. States. Many Latinos have come from Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Cuba and/or South America. Mexican – Includes all citizens of Mexico regardless of race.
When talking about people of Latin American descent in the U.S. you can generally use Latino (or Latina for a woman). Hispanic is also correct if you are talking to someone who speaks Spanish. But if you value your life, never ever say a Brazilian is a Hispanic. Brazilians get deeply offended and rightfully so.
What is my race if I am Hispanic? ›OMB defines "Hispanic or Latino" as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.
How much do Latinos make? ›The median wage for foreign-born Hispanics is $31,700 compared to $38,848 for those born in the U.S. For non-Latino white workers, the number goes up to $52,942. Hispanics spend 71 percent of their incomes on housing, health care, banking, broadband, food and consumer goods.
How many Latinos are in the United States? ›The Hispanic or Latino population, which includes people of any race, was 62.1 million in 2020. The Hispanic or Latino population grew 23%, while the population that was not of Hispanic or Latino origin grew 4.3% since 2010.
What influenced Mexican culture? ›
Mexico has been deeply influenced by Spanish colonisation that began in the 16th century and lasted for almost three centuries. Before European occupation, the land of Mexico was home to expansive Mesoamerican civilisations, such as those of the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Aztec, Maya and Zapotec people.
What is Hispanic culture known for? ›Hispanic culture is known for close ties with families, as well as rich culinary, musical, religious, and holiday traditions that are passed down among families.
Why is family important to Latino culture? ›The family unit is the single most important unit in the Latino culture. It influences the perception and behavior of its members as to how they see the outside world. Latinas/os see themselves as representing their family in outside contacts. (Implicit control by the family.)
What is the most important social unit of the Hispanic community? ›In Hispanic culture, family is the most important social unit and usually goes beyond the nuclear family including not only parents and children, but also extended family members.
What do you see as some of the most important Hispanic contributions to the United States? ›It is clear that the most notable contribution of Latinos to the culture of the United States has been the penetration of the Spanish language. Today, Spanish is spoken in 41 million homes in the country, and so it has positioned itself as the second most studied language in educational institutions, surpassing French.
Are Latinos more affected by Covid? ›It finds: Total cumulative data show Black, Hispanic, American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (NHOPI) people have experienced higher rates of COVID-19 cases and deaths compared to White people when data are adjusted to account for differences in age by race and ethnicity.
How many Latinos are U.S. born? ›In 2019, about 19.8 million, or one-third, of all Latinos living in the U.S. were born outside the country, and an additional 1.9 million, or 3%, were born in Puerto Rico (those born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens at birth).
Who are Hispanic students? ›We use the terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" interchangeably throughout this report to refer to a widely diverse group of students with family origins in Spanish-speaking countries. About 64 percent of Hispanic Americans are U.S.-born citizens residing in the United States (Bureau of the Census, 1993a).
Are Latinos less educated? ›Despite high educational expectations, Hispanics are among the least educated group in the United States: 11 percent of those over age 25 have earned a bachelor's degree or higher compared with 17 percent of blacks, 30 percent of whites, and 49 percent of Asian Americans in the same age group (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003) ...
What percentage of Latino students go to college? ›LATINO STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
In 2020, 21.8% of U.S. undergraduate college students were Latino, the second largest ethnic group enrolled at the undergraduate level[i].
What percentage of Latinos obtain a high school degree? ›
According to Excelencia in Education, a total of 72% of all Latinos ages 25 and over have a high school diploma.
How do Latinos feel about counseling? ›In the Latina/o culture, counseling is stigmatized. Many families are brought up not to “gossip” or talk about personal or family problems with strangers. Aside from that, most families do not have a clear understanding of what counseling is.
Why do Hispanics not believe in mental health? ›Latinos not seeking help with mental health issues stem from various different factors such as economic barriers, language barriers, religion, and most importantly, the mental health stigma.
What percentage of therapists are Latino? ›By 2019, more than 10.6% of therapists were Asian, 6.4% were Hispanic or Latino, and 4.1% were Black. Every racial demographic except white people has grown since 2010, with white people making up just 76.4% of therapists in 2019.
Why is education important? ›Education develops critical thinking. This is vital in teaching a person how to use logic when making decisions and interacting with people (e.g., boosting creativity, enhancing time management). Education helps an individual meet basic job qualifications and makes them more likely to secure better jobs.
Do Latino families value education? ›Research has demonstrated that Latino families value education and work in diverse forms to contribute to their children's success.
What percentage of Latinos go to college? ›Thirty-six percent of Latinos aged 18–24 enrolled in college in 2020, decreasing the enrollment gap between Latino students and Whites to 5 percentage points, compared to a gap of 11 percentage points in 2010.
Can you be Hispanic and not Latino? ›Hispanic and Latino are often used interchangeably though they actually mean two different things. Hispanic refers to people who speak Spanish or are descended from Spanish-speaking populations, while Latino refers to people who are from or descended from people from Latin America.
What are the 4 purposes of education? ›These were: (1) to learn and develop self-knowledge; (2) to develop life skills and social skills; (3) to optimize life chances and quality of life; (4) to enable future employment and economic wellbeing.
What are the five main reasons why education is important? ›- Develop Self-Dependency. ...
- Fulfil Dreams and Ambitions. ...
- Build Confidence. ...
- Make a Fairer World. ...
- Underpin Human Progress. ...
- Bring Education into Everyday Activities. ...
- Help out with Homework. ...
- Work at Extracurricular Activities.
What influenced Mexican culture? ›
Mexico has been deeply influenced by Spanish colonisation that began in the 16th century and lasted for almost three centuries. Before European occupation, the land of Mexico was home to expansive Mesoamerican civilisations, such as those of the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Aztec, Maya and Zapotec people.
Is Hispanic a cultural group? ›Hispanics in the United States includes any person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race. Latinos are people of Latin-American descent (Webster's 3rd Inter- national Dictionary, 2002).
Who is the most famous Latina? ›- Ellen Ochoa. On April 8, 1993, Ellen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman in the world to go into space. ...
- Joan Baez. ...
- Dolores Huerta. ...
- Selena. ...
- Sylvia Rivera. ...
- Ana Mendieta. ...
- Ileana Ros-Lehtinen. ...
- Julia de Burgos.
Upworthy: Black women are now America's most educated group. The number of postsecondary certificates below the baccalaureate level awarded to Hispanic students more than doubled (a 146 percent increase, from 78,500 to 193,000) between academic years 2000–01 and 2015–16.
What race has the highest high school dropout rate? ›In 2019, the high school drop out rate for American Indian/Alaska Natives in the United States was 9.6 percent -- the highest rate of any ethnicity.
Is it OK to say Hispanic? ›When talking about people of Latin American descent in the U.S. you can generally use Latino (or Latina for a woman). Hispanic is also correct if you are talking to someone who speaks Spanish. But if you value your life, never ever say a Brazilian is a Hispanic. Brazilians get deeply offended and rightfully so.
What is my race if I am Mexican? ›Hispanic or Latino
Chicano – Includes people born in the United States with Mexican ancestry. States. Many Latinos have come from Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Cuba and/or South America. Mexican – Includes all citizens of Mexico regardless of race.
OMB defines "Hispanic or Latino" as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.